Motivation Theory

Theory Of Motivation
 
To try to solve a motivational problem that any manager may face with his employees. we have to discuss the different theories of motivation.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs:
According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs "deficiency needs." As long as we are motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward self-actualization.
 


Physiological Needs
Physiological needs are the very basic needs such as air, water, food, sleep, sex, etc. When these are not satisfied we may feel sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, etc.
Safety Needs
Safety needs have to do with establishing stability and consistency in a chaotic world. These needs are mostly psychological in nature. We need the security of a home and family.
However, if a family is dysfunction, i.e., a rude husband, the wife cannot move to the next level because she is constantly concerned for her safety. Love and belongingness have to wait until she is no longer feeling fear. Safety needs sometimes motivate people to be religious. Religions comfort us with the promise of a safe secure place after we die and leave the insecurity of this world.  
Love Needs
Love and belongingness are next on the ladder. Humans have a desire to belong to groups: clubs, work groups, religious groups, family, gangs, etc. We need to feel loved (non-sexual) by others, to be accepted by others. We need to be needed.

Esteem Needs
There are two types of esteem needs. First is self-esteem, which results from competence or mastery of a task. Second, there's the attention and recognition that comes from others. This is similar to the belongingness level; however, wanting admiration has to do with the need for power. People who have all of their lower needs satisfied; often drive very expensive cars because doing so raises their level of esteem. "Hey, look what I can afford-peon!"
Self-Actualization
The need for self-actualization is "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." People who have everything can maximize their potential. They can seek knowledge, peace, esthetic experiences, self-fulfillment, and oneness with God, etc.
How will we recognize this idealized self-actualized person?
1.     More efficient perception of reality and more comfortable relations with it
2.     Acceptance of self and others
3.     Spontaneity
4.     Detachment - the need for privacy
5.     Continued freshness of appreciation
6.     Mystic experience or oceanic feeling
7.      Interpersonal relations
8.     Democratic behavior
9.     Sense of humor
10. Creativeness
11. Resistance to enculturation
 
Motivational Factors:
Frederick Hertzberg, contributed to human relations and motivation in terms of organization development, two theories of motivation as follows:
·         Hygiene Theory
·         Motivation
The first part of the motivation theory involves the hygiene theory and includes the job environment. The hygiene factors include
·         The company, Its policies and its administration, The kind of supervision which people receive while on the job, Working conditions, Interpersonal relations, Salary, Status, and Security.
These factors do not lead to motivations but without them there is dissatisfaction.
The second part of the motivation theory involves what people actually do on the job. The motivators are
·         Achievement, Recognition, Growth / advancement and, Interest in the job.
These factors result from internal generators in employees, yielding motivation rather than movement.
Both these approaches (hygiene and motivation) must be done simultaneously. Treat people as best you can so they have a minimum of dissatisfaction. Use people so they get achievement, recognition for achievement, interest, and responsibility and they can grow and advance in their work.
Therefore, the hygiene and motivation factors can be listed as follows:
Hygiene
·         Company policies and administration
·         Supervision
·         Working conditions and interpersonal relations
·         Salary, status and security
Motivators
·         Achievement
·         Recognition for achievement
·         Interest in the task
·         Responsibility for enlarged task
·         Growth and advancement to higher-level tasks.
 
Implications of Motivational Theory:
Douglas McGregor Managerial Style Theory X/Theory Y
Theory X
The Manager who believes in applying Theory X  (The Authoritarian) Style tends to believe that
People inherently dislike work
People must be coerced or controlled to do work to achieve objectives
People prefer to be directed
So he gives close supervision and defines jobs and systems that structure how a worker allocates and applies their time. They place stress on workers being calculative.


Theory Y
The Manager who believes in applying Theory Y (The Participative Style) tends to moh moh 4 4 2002-02-16T12:17:00Z 2002-02-16T12:41:00Z 6 942 5375 emc 44 10 6600 9.2720believe that
People view work as being as natural as play and rest
People will exercise self-direction and -control towards achieving objectives they are committed to
People learn to accept and seek responsibility
Authoritarian behavior is not usually appropriate. Managerial behavior can be based on the theory Y assumption that others want to do good job.
 
Behavior Modification:
B. F. Skinner devised a theory of behavior modification that advocates positive reinforcement. Namely rewards for good behavior.  
Thus if a designer does a good job in your project, it is appropriate to send him a memo and send a copy to his boss and perhaps to his personnel folder, conversely you do not have to do anything if on another occasion she does a poor job. The absence of positive reinforcement will be message enough.
 
Management By Objectives:
MBO focus management and worker attention on the  outcome (objectives or results) rather than on the process By which a worker chooses to achieve the outcome .this frees the manager to concentrate on what is desired, and it leaves the worker free to concentrate on how to accomplish it in his or her own style , progress toward objectives is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress.
 
MBO Principles
Cascading of organizational goals and objectives
Specific objectives for each member
Participative decision making
Explicit time period
Performance evaluation and feedback
The  technique draws upon the motivational factors of responsibility and achievement .the worker may be motivated because he or she is consulted in a responsible way in defining the task to be carried out . and , as the worker is doing the work, there may be clear progress during the work that provides a periodic sense of achievement.
 
  Expectancy Theory:
An individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The following are propositions of Expectancy Theory:
When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest motivation forces (MF).
 
 
MF=  Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valance
 

  Expectancy: The expectancy is the belief that one's effort will result is achievement of desired performance  goals. This belief is generally based on an individual's past experience, self confidence (often termed self efficacy), the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal.
Examples include:
i.If I spend most of tonight studying will it improve my grade on tomorrow's math exam?
ii.If I work harder than everyone else in the plant will I produce more?
iii.If I make more sales calls will I make any more sales?
a.Variables affecting the individual's Expectancy perception:
i.Self Efficacy-:  Does the individual believe that he or she has the require skills and competencies required to perform well and the required goals?
ii.Goal Difficulty:  When individuals perceive that the goals are beyond their ability to achieve, motivation is low because of low Expectancy.
iii.Perceived Control Over Performance: When individuals perceive that the outcome is beyond their ability to influence, Expectancy, and thus motivation, is low.  For example, many profit-sharing plans do not motivate individuals to increase their effort because these employees do not think that they have direct control over the profits of their large companies.
Instrumentality: The instrumentality is the belief that if one does meet performance expectations, he or she will receive a greater reward. This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment.
a.Examples include:
i.If a get a better grade on tomorrow's math test will I get an "A" in math?
ii.If I produce more than anyone else in the plant, will I get a bigger raise? A faster promotion?
iii.If I make more sales will I get a bonus? A greater commission?
 
b.Variables affecting the individual's instrumentality perception:
i.Trust: When individuals trust their leaders, they're more likely to believe their promises that good performance will be rewarded.
ii.Control- When workers do not trust the leaders of their organizations, they often attempt to control the reward system through a contract or some other type of control mechanism.  When individuals believe they have some kind of control over how, when, and why rewards are distributed, Instrumentality tends to increase.
iii.Policies- The degree to which pay and reward systems are formalized in written policies has an impact on the individuals' Instrumentality perceptions.  Formalized policies tend to increase Instrumentality. 
 
Valance: The valance refers the value the individual personally places on the rewards. This is a function of his or her needs, goals, and values.
a. Examples include:
i.How much I really want an "A" in math?
ii.Do I want a bigger raise? Is it worth the extra effort? Do I want a promotion?
iii.Do I need a sales bonus? Is the extra time I spend making extra sales calls worth the extra commission?
iv.Is it important to me that I am the best salesperson?
b. Variables affecting the individual's Valance for outcomes:
i.Values
ii.Needs
iii.Goals
iv.Preferences
c. Potential Valued Outcomes may include: 
i.Pay increases and bonuses
ii.Promotions
iii.Time off
iv.New and interesting assignments
v.Recognition






Equity Theory:
An employee compares her/his job's inputs-outcomes ratio with that of referents.
The comparisons individuals use  fall into five classes of comparison:
a.Job Equity- Individuals compare their pay to the pay of other individuals in the same position they hold within their organization.
b.Company Equity- Individuals compare their pay to the pay of other individuals holding the different positions within their organization
c.Occupational (Market) Equity- Individuals compare their pay to the pay of other individuals holding the same position in other organizations
d.Cohort Equity- Individuals compare their pay to the pay of others in similar cohort groups, generally age and education.
e.Self Equity- Individuals compare their pay to the pay they received at another point in time.
The individual responses to inequity include:
a.Leaving the organization
b.Reduction in performance, generally extra role behavior
c.Attempting to increase one’s pay
d.Attempting to reduce the performance of others






Sources:
http://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_05_herzberg.html
http://sol.brunel.ac.uk/~jarvis/bola/motivation/mcgregor.html
http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/FIS/Courses/LIS1230/LIS1230sharma/plan4.htm
http://www.tbr.state.tn.us/policies_guidelines/general_guidelines/G-100.htm
http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/FIS/Courses/LIS1230/LIS1230sharma/motive6.htm
http://www.cba.uri.edu/Scholl/Notes/Motivation_Expectancy.html