Theories of Motivation

A supervisor at any level is responsible for using a work group's resources efficiently to achieve the organization's objectives. Understanding how to motivate and lead a group of workers is the supervisor's most important job.

By involving employees more fully in the organization, it is gaining broad acceptance and is becoming an integral part of the continuously improving quality.

Theories of Motivation

The study of management has increased our understanding of what motivates people to commit themselves to a group or leader and how a supervisor can influence this motivation. Research has shown that allowing people to take part in managing their work lives improve productivity and morale.
Participative management has grown out of the theories of psychologists and sociologists who have studied worker productivity.

Here are academic theories about motivation.

Acquired Needs Theory: we seek power, achievement or affiliation.
Affect Perseverance: Preference persists after disconfirmation.
Attitude-Behavior Consistency: Factors that align attitude and behavior.
Attribution Theory: we need to attribute cause, that supports our ego.
Cognitive Dissonance: non-alignment is uncomfortable
Cognitive Evaluation Theory: we select tasks based on how doable they are.
Consistency Theory: we seek the comfort of internal alignment.
Control Theory: we seek to control the world around us.
Disconfirmayion Bias: Agreeing with what supports beliefs and vice versa.
ERG Theory: We seek to fulfill needs of existence, relatedness and growth.
Escape Theory: We seek to escape uncomfortable realities around us.
Expectancy Theory: We are motivated by desirable things we expect we can achieve.
Extrinsic Motivation: external: tangible rewards.
Goal-Setting Theory: different types of goals motivate us differently.
Intrinsic Motivation: internal: value-based rewards.
Investment Model: our commitment depends on what we have invested.
Opponent-Process Theory: opposite emotions interact.
Positive psychology: What makes us happy.
Reactance Theory: discomfort when freedom is threatened.
Self-Determination Theory: External and internal motivation.
Self- Discrepancy Theory: we need beliefs to be consistent.
Side Bet Theory: aligned side-bets increase commitment to a main belt.
The Transtheoritical Model of Change: Stages in changing oneself.
Taylor's Scientific Management

Frederick S. Taylor is known as the father of scientific management. In the early 1900s, he applied the principles of scientific observation and analysis to managing work. He concluded that work should be broken down into simple, specialized tasks that be easily taught.

The Hawthorn Studies

The Hawthorn Studies, found that social relationships and values of the workers significantly affected productivity. The studies also showed that being questioned by researchers encouraged workers to be more productive because theyfelt that their ideas matter.

Maslow and Herzberg

Later, research by Abraham Maslow and Frederick Herzberg demonstrated that workers are likely to be motivated by an opportunity to grow, a sense of achievement, responsibility, and recognition.

Abraham Maslow Hierachy of Needs My Needs Frederick Herzberg Theory
Self Actualization “Being” Motivator Achievement
Creative Needs Recognition
Using your Potential Learning Growth
Determiner of your own life Independence
Creativity
Challenge
Help Society Risk
Self Esteem “Doing” Hygiene
Recognition Needs Salary
Feeling worthwile Work with others Job Security
Respected Community Supervisor Behahiour
Belonging Friendship Company Policy
Love Contact with People
Acceptance Recognition
Part of a group Being Expert
Promotion Status

Safety “Having ”
Protection from threat and danger Needs
Security Security
Money
Physiological Routine
Food, water, shelter Peace

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas mcGregor, an American social psychologist, developed his theory X and theory Y of human motivation. It has been used in human resource management, organizational behavior, and organizational development. They describe two different attitudes toward workforce motivation. McGregor felt that companies followed either on or the other approach.

A Theory X manager makes the following general assumptions:
Work is inherently distasteful to most people, who will attempt to avoid work whenever possible.
Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.
Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problems.
Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Most people are self-centered. As a result, they must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives
Most people resist change
Most people are gullible and not particularly intelligent.

Essentially, Theory X assumes that the primary source of most employee motivation is money, with security as a strong second.

In strong contrast to Theory X, a Theory Y manager makes the following general assumptions:
Work can be as natural as play if the conditions are favorable.
People will be self-directed and creative to meet their work and organizational objectives if they are commited to them.
People will be commited to their quality and productivity objectives if rewards are in place that addresses higher needs such as self-fulfillment.
The capacity for creativity spreads throughput organizations.
Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population.
Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility.

Management by Objective

Management by objective was introduced by Peter Drucker in the 1950s and written about in his 1954 book, The Practice of Management

It is a system that seeks to align employees' goals of the organization. This ensures that everyone is clear about what they should be doing, and how that is beneficial to the whole organization. It's quite easy to see why this type of managing makes sense – when the parts work is in unison the whole works smoothly yoo. And by focusing on what you're trying to achieve, you can quickly discriminate between tasks that must be completed, and those that are just a waste of valuable time.

Reinforcement Theory

B.F Skinner, who propounded the reinforcement theory, holds that by designing the environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering internal factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior, individuals are directed by what happens in the environment external to them. Skinners states that work environment should be made suitable to individuals and that punishments actually lead to frustration and demotivation. Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes in the external environment of the organization.

Japanese Management

Within the last fifteen years, the focus of American companies has shifted to the techniques used in Japan to motivate workers. These techniques involve workers at all levels of the organization in an effort to continuosly improve the process of making a product that meets customer needs.

The Effect of Values on Motivation

To engage workers fully in the goals and efforts of the organization, supervisors must understand their needs and motives. Rather than issuing commands, an effective leader influences workers to achieve thier own goals by working to achieve goals of the organization. To exert such an influence, leaders must know how values shape behavior.

Shaping Behavior

Each of u develops our own system of values that may be the source of conflict with other people, organizations, or even ourselves. The better we can understand how a person thinks, why they act and choose the priorities they do, the greater opportunity we have of working effectively with that person – and that also goes for ourselves.

Motivating Workers

Firms use incentives to encourage efficient behavior. Appropriate incentives increase output and decrease internal monitoring costs. Regular increases in wages over time, vested pension funds, piece rates (the worker is paid according to the number of units of output produced) bonuses and contests, and stock ownership can improve internal efficiency by providing incentives for employees to work harder.

Shaping Worker Attitudes

The example supervisors set helps mold the work group members' attitudes toward their work and toward management, cutoners, and each other. Furthermore, a supervisor's response to suggestions may encourage or stifle worker's initiative or creativity. Supervisors who want to encourage initiative and positive work values should be open to ideas about change.


Reference:
Supervision: Skills for Managing Work and Leading People. By Judith G. Bulin